Contents

Executive summary 1

1. Affordable housing is a global challenge and opportunity 23

2. Narrowing the affordability gap 39

Housing programs should be based on a broad vision of a housing ladder, with improving outcomes 40

Four levers can substantially narrow the affordability gap 46

3. Creating the right delivery platform for each city 131

4. Strategies and tools to tackle affordable housing: City case studies 155

Appendix A.

Calculating the affordability gap 181

Appendix B.

Detailed list of sub‑levers for affordable housing programs 184

Bibliography 191